Theories Fokone G. and M. Turner
The linguistic theory of metaphor, which serves as basis for the definition, considering the metaphor of "trope or mechanism of speech, consisting in the use of the word that denotes a class of objects, events, etc., serves to characterize an object or a name that is included in another class, or the name of another class of objects similar to this in any respect ", refers to the time of Aristotle. The term metaphor (from the Greek), meaning "transfer", "movement", "rotation", was introduced Aristotle was his understanding of art as an imitation of life. In his "Poetic" we first encounter the theory of metaphor, which is a theory of hierarchical types. "Portable floor - (metaphora) is inappropriate name transferred from the genus for a species, or of a kind". As a result, the basis of metaphorical transfer, within a category (genus-species, species, genus, species, type, race to the element type, based on the ratio) - the similarity between two objects. This definition has laid a solid foundation of classical definition of metaphor as the transfer of one object or event to another object or phenomenon on the basis of similarities between them. Of course, the Aristotelian hierarchy of types does not cover all the important phenomenon of metaphor, such as its origin, who will play a major role for many-space model metaphors. Two - dimensional structure, which we see here, is not regarded as an essential part of human communication, here it serves to achieve a greater expressiveness of words spoken or written.
It is important to note that this model is quite a long time has not been substantially changed. It has evolved, and in the 1930's English linguist A. Richards suggested using the following words to describe the components of a metaphor: "the content, meaning" (tenor) and the "envelope image" (vehicle), ie, for denote the two "ideas", which, according to his views, "act together". Research Ivor Richards partly reflected in the works of Max Black, who developed the so-called "interaktsionny approach". In the basis of this approach is the assertion that the metaphor - it is organic phenomenon of language, which operates at a deeper level than the level of verbal combinations, and is manifested in the interaction (interaction), the conceptual structures underlying the words.
Let us explain that the conceptual interaction, which enters the Black, is a kind of conceptual combination, with the difference that, when combining the original value concepts in the new structure does not change, while the conceptual ineraktsii value of the initial concepts changed. The ultimate metaphor - more than just a combination, it is conceptually closer and alters its components. Interaction is the exchange of predicates - the associations between these concepts.
Black model is built directly on the metaphor, which makes specification of individual predicates. His "interaktsionnaya Theory" leads to the withdrawal of metaphors rhetorical context.
As noted earlier, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson emphasize the role of cognitive metaphor, criticizing the main traditional areas of linguistic research. G. Lakoff finds no principled distinction between metaforizatsiey ordinary and poetic language, metaphor actually giving a meaningful role.
In this theory the main point is that metaphors help us in the process of thinking, build some empirical border, through which we begin to understand the new abstract concepts. "The essence of metaphor - that understanding and experience the essence of a species in terms of another type". Due to the fact that mixing of metaphors going on behind the thinking, a cognitive map, which, in turn, is a network of concepts. The network is organized in such a way that abstract concepts anchored in our experiences and with the outside world. The description and construction of the observable world and build a cognitive map, use the following terminology: the structure of the goal (target domain), the structure of the source (sourse domain), cognitive mapping (cognitive mapping). Mainly in the concept are not the words and expressions, as ontological conceptual mapping of the Worlds (ontological mapping across conceptual domain). The metaphor as a fact of language, rhetorical side, it is secondary in relation to the metaphor as a fact of thinking, as part of the semantic system, as a metaphor in the cognitive aspect.
The work of Lakoff and Johnson criticized the traditional theory is that they are "the basic concepts of indecomposable further primitives". They believe that not all "primitives", which are considered elementary "building blocks" values are indecomposable. They cited the example of the concept "causality", arguing that the reason as "basic categories of human thinking" "should not be considered further indecomposable primitives". As a result, Lakoff and Johnson propose to his concept of "causality is an empirical Gestalt" . The mere understanding, therefore, should be perceived as a cluster, which in turn consists of other components. Gestalt - a whole cluster - comprising parts. In light of this concept, they used the term "prototipichesky". In the category we can identify "prototipicheskih" categories of representatives and "neprototipicheskih" - indirect, which are not the brightest representatives of the family. For example, trout - fish that is, "prototipichesky" member of his family, but the shark - not a typical representative of the class of fish. Here, the important role played by perceptions and attitudes of a certain group representative. This primarily depends on our knowledge of the world and how we kontseptualiziruem around us.
The main role of metaphor in the cognitive process - to expand the existing category. Each category is created on our experience of the world, and a model with a specific area of application. The metaphor of change and adds a new category, putting a new classification concepts. This helps in extending the previous concepts, identify new spatial categories.
Summarizing the above, we can draw the following conclusion: the theory of metaphor, which is a two-structure in language teachings in the light of the three-dimensional structure of acquired cognitive status. Theory "mnogoprostranstvennoy" structure, which it will continue, was a logical continuation in the development of metaphors.